The commonly imagined “world computer” — a globally distributed platform capable of handling all computational tasks based on trust — is a flawed hypothesis. In reality, the future of Web3 will not be its outcome. This view stems from a deep insight into the nature of the Turing machine model: it is incomplete and can only function as a deterministic computational tool. Even with infinite performance scaling, such a “machine of trusted code” possesses only the capabilities of a tool and cannot construct complex and non-deterministic systems like the Bitcoin network. Trust emerges from the relative adaptive emergence of asymmetric interactions, not from the determinism and absoluteness of a centralized “world computer.”
Bitcoin’s uniqueness lies in the fact that it is not built solely on the architecture of the incomplete Turing machine model, but rather established through asymmetric interactions among various Turing machines and peer human-machine interactions, forming a complex adaptive system. Different participants in the network (such as miners, full nodes, and user wallets) perform their own independent computational tasks and engage in asymmetric interactions via specific protocols and rules. At the same time, human participation is critical: users interact with the network through wallets, miners are operated by humans, and the developer community maintains the evolution of the protocol. This deep integration of humans and machines allows the Bitcoin network to adapt to external environmental changes (such as hash rate fluctuations and market demand) and to self-evolve through consensus mechanisms and protocol upgrades. It exhibits the typical characteristics of complex adaptive systems — emergence, self-organization, and adaptability.
For cryptocurrencies to truly take root and solve real-world problems, we must abandon the singular thinking mode of the “world computer,” which is based on the incomplete Turing machine theory, and instead embrace the theory of complex adaptive systems. The reason current blockchain technology has yet to see large-scale application is precisely because we have overemphasized high computational efficiency within formal systems, while ignoring a core factor: adaptive completeness.
This “adaptive completeness” does not originate from computational efficiency within the formal system, but from relative conventions of asymmetric interactions outside of it. In networks like Bitcoin, participants reach a series of informal and continuously evolving “agreements” through negotiation, game theory, and signal exchange. These agreements are not strict logical deductions, but “relative” consensuses based on shared interests, experience, and expectations of the future. It is precisely these agreements that enable the system to maintain stable and effective operation in uncertain environments and interact meaningfully with real-world social and economic activities.
Recognizing Bitcoin as a complex adaptive system — rather than a simple computational tool — is crucial to understanding the nature of cryptocurrencies and the future development of blockchain. The path forward should not be limited to pursuing higher transaction throughput or lower latency, but should instead focus on how to design effective asymmetric interaction mechanisms, how to foster deeper and broader human-machine interaction, and how to build adaptive protocols capable of self-adjustment and evolution through relative conventions. Only when blockchain technology truly integrates with and adapts to the complex and ever-changing real world can it fulfill its promised value.
